Update: Applications of Research in Music Education recent issues

Comments From the Editor

Brittin, R. V. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

The Effect of Positive Peer Reinforcement on Psychological Measures and Guitar Songleading Performance in University Students

Silverman, M. J. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of positive peer reinforcement on self-reported psychological measures and songleading performance in beginning guitar students. No differences were found between the control group (n = 21) and the experimental group (n = 20) concerning psychological measures of self-esteem, stress, and depression. However, the experimental group receiving positive peer reinforcement performed significantly better on a measure of guitar songleading performance than did the control group (p < .001). These results suggest that using positive peer reinforcement in a university music methods class can be an effective technique to improve performance but may not affect psychological well-being.

The 7/8 Piano Keyboard: An Attractive Alternative for Small-Handed Players

Wristen, B., Hallbeck, M. S. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

This study examines whether the use of a 7/8 keyboard contributes to the physical ease of small-handed pianists in comparison to the conventional piano keyboard. A secondary research question focuses on the progression of physical ease in making the transition from one keyboard to the other. For the purposes of this study, the authors stipulated having a hand span of 8 in. or less as defining a "small-handed" pianist. Objective data measures were obtained through the use of surface electromyography (muscle activity measurement) and electrogoniometry (angle measurement). A questionnaire instrument was also used to examine the perception of participants as they experienced playing the 7/8-size piano keyboard in direct comparison with the conventional keyboard. Although objective data findings from this study are somewhat ambiguous, it is clear from the questionnaires that the majority of small-handed participants preferred the 7/8-size keyboard over the conventional one.

Utilizing Internet-Based Videoconferencing for Instrumental Music Lessons

Dammers, R. J. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

This exploration of online applied music lessons focused on nine trumpet lessons between Jeremy, a college trumpet professor on the East Coast, and Kate, an eighth-grade trumpet player in the Midwest. These lessons followed an entry-level videoconferencing approach using personal computers, Web cams, and Skype videoconferencing software. These lessons demonstrated that the format was functional on a basic level. Jeremy was able to provide helpful feedback and Kate showed progress. However, the limitations of video delay and limited visual controls presented sufficient challenges so that this format appears to be only a supplement for face-to-face lessons at the current time. In this study some unique features of online lessons are addressed and recommendations are made for future practice.

Choral Student Perceptions of Effective Motivation Strategies

Stamer, R. A. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

The purpose of this study is to determine differences in choral students’ perceptions of motivation strategies. A survey provided the opportunity for students (N = 515) to identify effective motivation techniques. Students identified director/ student attention and knowledge of results as being highly effective, interest as being effective, and task achievement and level of concern as being somewhat effective in enhancing student motivation. Significant differences, compared by gender and grade level, were identified for several motivation strategies. Implications for choral music educators who wish to enhance their ability to motivate students to learn are provided, as are recommendations for further research.

Focus on Scaffolding Language and Sequential Units During Choral Instruction

Freer, P. K. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

The purpose of the study reported in this article was to investigate the instructional discourse of two middle school choral music teachers videotaped during a total of 24 classroom visits. The findings indicate that teacher attention to complete sequential units of instruction (teacher presentation, student interaction, teacher feedback) may encourage the employment of scaffolding language (language that supports student learning). A focus on scaffolding language corresponded to a decrease in the completion of sequential units of instruction. Choral teachers seeking to foster a constructivist-oriented rehearsal environment may find it advantageous to focus attention on the completion of sequential units of instruction. Similarly, teachers of collegiate methods classes may wish to draw students’ attention to complete sequential units as a precursor to exploring the application of constructivist theory to ensemble rehearsal technique.

Using a Prescreening Rubric for All-State Violin Selection: Influences of Performance and Teaching Experience

Geringer, J. M., Allen, M. L., MacLeod, R. B., Scott, L. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

Performance assessment is an integral part of young musicians’ development. Students enrolled in music programs frequently participate in adjudication festivals and many audition for select ensembles. Outcomes of such events are deemed consequential among all concerned: students, parents, teachers, and administrators. Furthermore, the number of all-state applicants for some individual instruments in many states exceeds 100 and in some states approaches or exceeds 200. This is an inordinate number of recordings or live auditions for individuals or judging panels to evaluate. It seems paramount to utilize an efficient yet fair and accurate audition process to assess large numbers of performances in a short period of time. To explore ways of addressing this issue, the authors designed a prescreening rubric with the goal of reducing the number of full-length recordings heard by judges to a more manageable number. The authors then compared ratings of listeners who used the rubric and heard only the étude portion of the audition to scores of trained and experienced judges who heard the entire audition.

The Effects of Band Labels on Evaluators' Judgments of Musical Performance

Silvey, B. A. — Thu, 22 Oct 2009 12:21:38 PDT

This study investigates the effects of band labels on evaluators’ judgments of musical performance. High school concert band members (n = 72), wind ensemble members ( n = 77), and band directors (n = 8) were randomly assigned to a band label or no label group. Only the band label group was given evaluation forms that specified the group playing the excerpt ("Wind Ensemble" or "Concert Band"). Participants evaluated 12 excerpts and were not made aware that 6 excerpts had actually been repeated twice under varying labels. A two-factor ANOVA showed two significant interactions between label and excerpt presentation order among concert band evaluators in the band label group.

Comments From the Editor

Brittin, R. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

School-Wide Goal Environment and Continuing Motivation in Music

Dill Bruenger, S. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

This study describes the school-wide motivation culture of an elementary music program that has an exceptional record of stimulating students' continuing motivation to participate in music ensembles on the middle school level. Participant observer techniques and open-ended interviews were used to gather data that were analyzed using the theoretical model taken from Maehr's "Transforming School Culture to Enhance Motivation." It was found that the principal in this context was supportive of the music program and according to Maehr's theoretical framework, was instrumental in creating a school-wide environment supportive of student task-goal adoption, thus stimulating continuing motivation.

Enhancing Literacy in the Second Grade: Five Related Studies Using the Register Music/Reading Curriculum

Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

The purpose of these five related studies was to ascertain the effects of a music curriculum designed to enhance reading skills of second-grade students. The dependent variables were subtest scores on the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test administered pre and post the music/reading intervention. Results showed that the total test gain scores of children receiving the music/reading curriculum were somewhat higher than those for control conditions in four of the five studies, but not significantly so. At the second site, gain scores were basically the same. All sites informally observed teacher and pupil enthusiasm for the music for reading curriculum. Though postreading scores were statistically equivalent among groups, it should be noted that in most sites, the music/reading curriculum time replaced reading instruction time. The value of this project is that it demonstrates the general benefits of music as a viable methodology for teaching reading skills at a comparable level while promoting enjoyment in an important academic area.

An Historical Perspective on the Chinese Americans in American Music Education

Lum, C.-H. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

This study examines the music of Chinese American heritage, as portrayed in American music education from the late 19th century to the present. Specifically, representative music education materials, such as Music Supervisors Journal, Music Educators Journal, graded music series textbooks, and other available resource materials, were traced for analysis and discussion. Music education sources and publications of Chinese American heritage saw transformations from negative stereotypes to genuine concern for their inclusion as part of the diversified American fabric. Continued pursuit of quality recordings within textbook series and other publications along with increasing use of three types of texts for the lyrics—Chinese characters, Romanized Chinese, and English translations in the songs—showed the progression of American music education in adopting the philosophy of the multicultural agenda. The increasing inclusion of historical and cultural contexts in the explanation of songs also created fuller understanding and appreciation of the Chinese cultural tradition.

Aesthetic Experiences With Music: Musicians Versus Children

Paul, P. M. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

This study, which is a replication and extension of earlier research by Paul, examines the correspondence of perceived aesthetic experiences between musicians, in the present investigation, and children, from Paul's previous experiment. As did fourth-grade students (N = 60) in Paul's earlier study, 56 adult musicians listened to Rachmaninoff's Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43, Variation 18, and used a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to simultaneously indicate reactions. Mean group responses were calculated and graphed. Visual analysis of graphs indicates that children did not differ substantially from musicians in their reaction to the excerpt, and correspondence between the two groups, computed using Pearson correlation coefficients, showed a strong positive correlation, r = .87, which was significant at the p < .001 level. These results are consistent with those from previous studies that found little difference in the frequency or magnitude of perceived aesthetic responses between adult musicians and nonmusicians.

Students' Perceptions of University Method Class Preparation for Teaching Across Music Disciplines

Hamann, D., Ebie, B. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

The purpose of this study was to determine if participants believed that participation in music education methods courses would provide adequate training to address concerns they had about teaching either within or outside their area of familiarity. One hundred fifty-nine music majors enrolled in music methods courses during the 2005-2006 academic year served as participants. Using a free response, open-ended questionnaire, participants were asked to assess their concerns about teaching in a musical area within and outside their familiar music expertise. The authors found that participants had thought about and could express concerns about teaching within and outside their area of familiarity, were confident their training in college music education methods courses could provide them the skills needed to be effective teachers, and believed that these courses would provide ample knowledge and experience to alleviate their concerns at this point in their careers. Implications for music education are discussed.

An Individualized Problem-Solving Approach for Teaching Choral Phrase Shaping: An Experimental Study

Broomhead, P. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

This experiment tested a treatment designed to improve choral students' expressiveness regarding keyword emphasis and phrase shaping. The treatment was founded upon the constructivist belief that students actively construct conceptual knowledge through problem solving. Participants were 46 university students randomly selected from a nonauditioned choir. A time-series design and backward-elimination ANOVA was used to produce and analyze the data. A treatment effect was found for both keyword emphasis and phrase shaping. Implications suggest that choral educators may increase students' ability and propensity to independently interpret music in terms of keyword emphasis and phrase shaping by providing problem-solving opportunities to students.

Brains and Music, Whales and Apes, Hearing and Learning . . . and More

Hodges, D. A. — Thu, 09 Apr 2009 09:47:56 PDT

This article is about whalesongs, hearing, musical brains, and a number of other topics explored over the past 35 years. Previous research is reviewed briefly, and more attention is given to recent efforts with an emphasis on collaborative research conducted with many wonderful colleagues. First is a brief account of the Institute for Music Research at the University of Texas at San Antonio, followed by more details on current projects at the Music Research Institute (MRi) at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Research at the MRi is divided into six topics: BioMusic, Music-Related Hearing Loss, Music Education, Music Performance, Ethnomusicology and Ecocriticism, and Neuromusical Research. The second half of the article is devoted to neuromusical research. This line of research includes earlier studies of pianists, conductors, and singers and more recent work on multisensory processing in musicians.

Comments From the Editor

Brittin, R. V. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:50 PDT

Sound Pressure Levels Measured in a University Concert Band: A Risk of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss?

Holland, N. V. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:53 PDT

Researchers have reported public school band directors as experiencing noise-induced hearing loss. Little research has focused on collegiate band directors and university student musicians. The present study measures the sound pressure levels generated within a university concert band and compares sound levels with the criteria set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Additionally, the immediate effects of sound exposure are described by temporary threshold shifts (TTS), collected from pre- and postrehearsal hearing screenings. Time-weighted averages were computed from the sound pressure levels and compared to the permissible noise limits established by OSHA and NIOSH. None of the time-weighted averages exceeded the permissible noise limits; however, there were 139 temporary TTSs (greater than 10 dBA) measured from pre- to postrehearsal. Presumably, university concert band musicians are exposed to sound levels that, over time, may lead to noise-induced hearing loss.

The Effects of Performance Quality Ratings on Perceptions of Instrumental Music Lessons

Henninger, J. C. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:23:03 PDT

This study examines the extent to which the perceptions of observers instructed to rate the quality of students' performances within ensemble rehearsals and applied lessons differ from those not so instructed. Music education majors (N = 52) wrote statements of observation during their viewing of a stimulus tape. All participants were informed of the instructional goals. Half of the participants (n = 26) rated the quality of student performance observed, while half did not. Participants' statements were classified according to topic, depth, and evaluative quality. Across both conditions, participants wrote more statements about teachers than about students.

Does Music Instruction Help Children Learn to Read? Evidence of a Meta-Analysis

Standley, J. M. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:51 PDT

This meta-analysis of 30 studies using a variety of music interventions to affect reading skills resulted in a moderately strong, significant, overall effect size of d = .32. When music activities incorporate specific reading skills matched to the needs of identified children (d = .44) or contingent music is used to reinforce reading behavior (d = .66), benefits are large. The music activities that pair alphabet recognition with phonetic patterns, incorporate word segmentation and sound blending skills, and promote rapid decoding skills are effective in enhancing reading instruction and require little transfer to the assessment methodology. Benefits are greater when the special music reading activities are added to an existing music education curriculum than when replacing it. All schedules of intervention are equally effective regardless of whether daily, intense, short-term, or weekly periodic intervention spread across the school year.

An Exploratory Study of Time Use in the Practice of Music Majors: Self-Report and Observation Analysis

Byo, J. L., Cassidy, J. W. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:56 PDT

The purpose of this study is to obtain survey and observation data concerning music education majors' practice room behavior. A survey provided opportunity for participants ( n = 38) to articulate techniques they used in practice. An observation component (n = 9) provided a view of the use of these techniques in actual practice. All participants articulated common practice techniques but a minority of those in observation analysis consistently used these techniques in optimal ways, thus demonstrating a gap between "knowing" and "intelligent doing." Overwhelmingly, participants identified better self-discipline as the one thing that would improve practice efficiency. Suggestions for resolving this problem are provided.

Creativity Research in Music Education: A Review (1980-2005)

Running, D. J. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:57 PDT

This article lays a foundational groundwork of what is currently known regarding creativity and music education to encourage future research. It explores principal research avenues within various scholarly journals related to creativity and music education, including definitions of creativity, empirical measures of creativity, and effects of music instruction on general creativity scores. Definitions (and, consequently, assessments) of creativity fall into three general categories: product based, process based, and performance based. These definitions have generated a number of new theories and tests designed to assess the creativity of products and individuals.

Children's Attitudes Toward Singing and Song Recordings Related to Gender, Ethnicity, and Age

Siebenaler, D. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:22:59 PDT

This study examines students' attitudes toward singing and choir participation related to gender, age, and ethnic background. It also looks at attitudes toward recordings from basal music series that are designed to provide an appropriate model and to encourage singing. Participants (N = 249) were third to fifth graders enrolled in two public schools in Texas. After completing a brief survey concerning their attitudes toward singing and choir, participants listened to nine recordings of various songs selected from two music textbook series. For each song, participants indicated their preference for the singers and the song. Results indicate few significant differences between boys and girls in their attitudes toward singing, but less positive attitudes for singing from the Hispanic participants, particularly the males. African American participants did not differ by gender and were more positive toward singing and all types of song recordings. The decline of positive attitudes toward school music was found primarily with the fifth graders.

Instrument Selection and Gender Stereotypes: A Review of Recent Literature

Eros, J. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:23:00 PDT

Choice of instrument is among the most important factors in determining the course of a student's music education. Instrument selection can be a lengthy process accomplished through a variety of factors. The stereotyping of instruments by gender can, unfortunately, be one of those factors. The association of gender with particular instruments can significantly influence a student in choosing an instrument, thereby resulting in numerous negative consequences— including fewer instrument choices, limited ensemble participation, and peer disapproval. The purpose of this literature review is to examine recent scholarship on this issue and make recommendations for future investigation and possible interventions. By examining post-1996 literature, this article demonstrates that this issue still affects music education; it discusses recent aspects of the issue; and it proposes areas for further inquiry.

Do Music Education Majors Intend to Teach Music? An Exploratory Survey

Hellman, D. — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 08:23:01 PDT

Preservice music teachers (N = 152) at six institutions were surveyed on their intent to enter and remain in K–12 music teaching. Respondents provided favorable speculations for entering and remaining in K–12 music teaching. Prevalent responses for desiring a music teaching position were categorized as follows: love for music, sharing music, inspiring and making a difference in students' lives, and having an enjoyable job. Categories for not wanting to obtain a school music teaching position included preferring to work in another area of music, insecurity about teaching skills, and anticipated low pay and job instability. Results are discussed in terms of diversity, teacher attrition, teacher socialization, and teacher identity.

Comments From the Editor

Brittin, R. V. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

The Effect of Grade, Experience, and Listening Condition on the Melodic Error Detection of Fifth- and Sixth-Grade Woodwind Students

Thornton, L. C. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of grade level and playing experience as well as listening condition on melodic error detection by young instrumental students. Participants (N = 31) were fifth- and sixth-grade students with either 1 or 2 years of experience playing their instrument. The participants were tested in two listening conditions, listening to recordings and listening to themselves while playing. Analysis of the data revealed no differences attributable to listening condition, grade level, or experience. Overall high scores indicate strong abilities in melodic error detection with familiar melodies by students with 1 or more years of experience, including listening to themselves during performance. Further research is called for with a larger sample size and with more musical elements.

The Use of Specific Practice and Performance Strategies in Sight-Singing Instruction

Henry, M. L. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

Because sight-reading, along with almost all other instruction in the choral classroom, occurs in a group setting, individual skill development is often overlooked. This study examined the effectiveness of teaching individual singers to employ specific behaviors that have been linked with high achievement during individual sight-reading trials while avoiding behaviors linked with low achievement. Pretest and posttest scores revealed no significant difference for high-achieving participants. Scores for low achievers differed significantly between pretest and posttest (t = 3.26, df = 33, p < .001). Desirable behaviors used during practice and performance from pretest to posttest increased significantly for both subgroups. The number of undesirable behaviors did not significantly differ for either group. Although additional strategies may be unnecessary for those already capable of sight-reading at a high level, instruction in the use of certain behaviors may allow lower achieving singers to effectively display their sight-reading skills for the first time.

Music's Representation in Parenting Magazines: A Content Analysis

Sims, W. L., Udtaisuk, D. B. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

The purpose of this study was to investigate the types, quantity, and quality of information regarding music that parents of young children receive from parenting magazines. Content analysis procedures were used to obtain and analyze the data for this study. All issues of the three most widely circulated parenting magazines in the United States for the calendar year 2004 were examined. Text or photos from articles or advertisements including music, musical topics, or musical objects served as data points. Music was featured as the primary topic in only five articles or columns, and there were 103 mentions in articles that included information or advice about a variety of nonmusical topics. Although music was represented with reasonable frequency and accuracy in these magazines, the messages readers received about music's role in children's and families' lives were primarily utilitarian—music's role for stress reduction and entertainment accounted for approximately half of the items.

Effect of Music Complexity on Nonmusicians' Focus of Attention to Melody or Harmony

Williams, L. R. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

This study is a replication and extension of a previous study to investigate the effect of musical complexity on nonmusicians' focus of attention to melody or harmony. The research questions addressed were as follows: (a) Is there a difference in focus of attention among levels of melodic complexity and harmonic complexity? (b) Is there a significant difference in focus of attention between melodic complexity and harmonic complexity? (c) Is there a significant difference between focus of attention responses and perceived focus of attention to melody or harmony? Participants (N = 126) were drawn from university nonmusic majors attending a large, comprehensive university in the Midwest. The music complexity variable consisted of four levels of melodic complexity and four levels of harmonic complexity each paired for a total of 16 possible combinations. Participants indicated their overall perceived focus of attention for melody and harmony. Significant differences were found for demonstrated focus of attention and perceived focus of attention. Overall, data showed that nonmusicians tend to focus attention on melodic elements. Implications for the findings and further research are discussed.

Integration of Music and Core Academic Objectives in the K-12 Curriculum: Perceptions of Music and Classroom Teachers

Colwell, C. M. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

The purpose of this study was to examine self-reports of in-service K–12 teachers before and after participation in a course structured to integrate music and core academic objectives. Participants completed a survey that addressed music experience, ability and attitude, teaching music objectives, and integrating music and academic objectives. Results indicated that teachers became more comfortable at the global thought of integrating music and core academic objectives, with a slight increase in confidence level in integrating music with reading, math, science, or social studies objectives.

Effective Mentoring for New Music Teachers: An Analysis of the Mentoring Programs for New Music Teachers as Described in the Literature

Benson, M. A. — Tue, 01 Jan 2008 00:00:00 PST

The purpose of this review was to examine the effectiveness of mentoring programs in the induction of new music educators. The literature found that most mentoring programs, although beneficial for general classroom teachers, are often perceived as ineffective by new music educators. In addition to describing inconsistent mentoring standards, the literature found that ill-fitting mandated mentoring programs frequently do not combat the feelings of isolation or address the lack of emotional support often experienced by new music teachers. Without the guidance of mentoring programs that address these concerns, many new music educators may fall prey to frustration, burnout, and attrition.